한국국제교류재단

Author : Yu Gina Professor, Department of Film & TV Studies, Dongguk University

The Korean film industry is currently enjoying a second renaissance. Asiaweek stated in an article in its April 21 issue that Korean movies have become the greatest influence in Asia, attracting more international interest than ever before. Other international magazines have also published articles on the dynamic performance of Korea's film industry, which since the second half of the 1990s has produced many movies that have generated domestic as well as international interest. In Korea, the phrase "Renaissance of Korean movies" is now frequently used to describe the film industry's newfound vitality and success. Korean movies enjoyed a golden age at the end of the 1950s and during the early 1960s, before the popularization of TV. After suffering a setback throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the movie industry has experienced a remarkable resurgence since the mid-1990s.

As proof of this, the domestic market share of Korean movies, which had hovered around the 20 percent mark in the 1990s, rose to 24 percent in 1998 despite a decline in the total number of films produced, and to 38 percent in 1999; the average number of moviegoers for local films has been rising noticeably, despite the continuing popularity that foreign movies command in the domestic market; Korean-made blockbusters such as Swiri, which broke all box-office records, continue to repeat their commercial success in foreign markets; moreover, an unprecedented number of Korean films have been invited to international film festivals, reflecting the growing global interest; and in a departure from a previous focus on features, the movies also span diverse genres, from documentaries to short films. This boom is also leading to the creation of a thriving film culture. Of particular note, about 40 film departments in universities, two large-scale international film festivals, and dozens of other film festivals have come into being in short order, riding on the crest of this wave. Of course, such vitality and success could turn out to be short-lived, and the problems hidden behind a successful exterior could eventually emerge. Thus some have questioned whether the Korean film industry has popped the champagne cork prematurely. To my knowledge, this question was first raised in 1997, which saw the production of a particularly high number of movies that offered almost nothing but motel love scenes. Fortunately, the voices of doubt have been virtually silenced with the continuing production of movies winning favorable reviews from audiences and critics alike. Thus it would not be imprudent to take the entry of several Korean movies-more than any other year-in this year's Cannes Film Festival as proof of their greatly improved quality. Four Korean films were invited to Cannes: Chunhyang was shown in the competitive section, and Peppermint Candy in the Directors' Fortnight section, in addition to another feature and a short film.

This article seeks to describe the background of the renaissance of the Korean film industry, and discuss the conditions that initiated changes as well as underlying problems. Such an effort may help to further enhance the industry's extraordinary performance so that it can create a flourishing film culture in the 2000s while laying to rest concerns about its likely decline.

Youthful Energy and Noteworthy Achievements of New Directors

Since the mid-1990s, the Korean film industry has often been referred to as having the youngest filmmakers in the world. Most of the producers are young, as are the technicians and actors. The industry is dominated by people in their twenties and thirties, and a handful in their forties. The audience for Korean movies is even younger, with the largest group of moviegoers being in their late teens and twenties. Younger people began to participate in the film industry since the 1980s, a trend that became more apparent in the 1990s.

Among 50 features produced in Korea in the late 1990s, more than half of these were produced by young first-time directors, testifying to the youthful energy and vitality characterizing the Korean movie business. In the 1980s, director Park Kwang-soo, a former student activist, Jang Sun-woo, and Lee Myeong-se, who majored in film in college, represented the so-called Korean New Wave. The 1990s were led by a new group of directors with experience in the production of short films, who majored in film in college, studied movie-making overseas (mainly in the United States), or graduated from the state-funded Korean Film Academy.

This new group of directors were different from earlier generations in that they became directors following formal education in film, or by producing their own short films with people of their age, rather than through the conventional way of working first as an assistant director. The first or second movies produced by the new directors in the 1990s were superior to those produced by more experienced directors, both in artistic quality and marketability.

Wedding Story, the debut movie of director Kim Yui-seok, became a hit as a result of its witty dialogue and psychological portrayal, along with contemporary settings which appealed to young moviegoers. It also spawned the production of further romantic comedies. Christmas in August, which elegantly reconstructed the conventions of melodramas through an introspection of daily routine, was the debut work of director Hur Jin-ho. Spring in my Hometown, which won several awards at international film festivals for its vivid portrayal of the hardships that followed the Korean War, was the first movie by director Lee Kwang-mo. In Memento Mori, the sequel to Whispering Corridors, a horror movie co-directed and written by Kim Tae-yong and Min Kyu-dong, the two directors discarded the conventional form of narration in favor of an entirely new narrative style. Swiri, an action thriller offering both the rapid-fire action of a spy thriller and the tragic sentimentality of a melodrama, was the second movie by Kang Je-gyu, following his first movie The Gingko Bed, which was also a commercial success. Director Hong Sang-soo, who is noted for his highly original style, continued to produce unique movies that starkly revealed the dismal aspects of daily life, beginning with his debut movie The Day a Pig Fell into the Well and his second movie The Power of Kangwon Province. Lee Min-yong's A Hot Roof, which comically depicted the travails of ordinary women rebelling against the repressiveness of Korea's deeply rooted patriarchy, has earned critical acclaim both in the domestic and overseas markets. Lee Jeong-hyang's first movie Art Museum by the Zoo, which resembles a landscape painting with feminine touches, was also favorably received for presenting an unusual style of romantic comedy. Kim Sung-soo came to be known for producing popular "buddy movies" through his successful second movie Beat, which focuses on the defiance of youth, and his third movie City of the Rising Sun. Meanwhile, The Contact, which initiated a rush of melodramatic film production in the late 199Os, was Jang Yun-hyeon's first movie. Director Jang Jin produced highly satirical movies The Happenings and The Spy, while Kim Jiwoon helped to revive the popularity of comedies with The Quiet Family, which introduced a new kind of cult comedy, and Foul King, a comical presentation of the aberrations of an ordinary urbanite, with both movies attaining a high level of artistic merit. Peppermint Candy, a painful retrospective of Korea's contemporary history through the life of an individual, is the second movie by Lee Chang-dong who debuted with the critically acclaimed Green Fish. Many other first -time directors also contributed to creating an entirely new film landscape in the 1990s by producing highly regarded movies of new styles. This trend has continued into the new millennium, leading to a generation of filmmakers who are more talented and focused than ever before.

Production Capital and Emergence of Concept Movies and Blockbusters

The generation shift in filmmaking, primarily centered on directors, is directly linked with changes in the availability of production capital and the emergence of concept movies. Until the 1980s, the production of films was mainly funded from the meager capital resources of Ch'ungmuro, a street in Seoul that is synonymous with Korea's film industry because of the high concentration of film production companies there. Previously, the funding for production came mostly from the sales of local distribution rights and video rights. Then came two major changes in the 1990s that significantly affected the availability of production capital. For the first time, conglomerates, or chaebol as they are known in Korea, were allowed to enter the film industry. Key chaebol groups (Samsung, Daewoo, SK and Hyundai) began to invest in moviemaking. Due to their preference for concept movies with likely potential for becoming box-office hits, they helped to create an environment for professional film planners to take root and produce new styles of movies centered on various themes. However, when Korea experienced a financial crisis in late 1997, the conglomerates-forced to consolidate their numerous business lines into selected core sectors-rapidly began to pull out of the film industry. Investment companies, however, soon filled the void created by the departure of the chaebol. of note, the investment companies introduced a new concept of providing investment fund, for the development of ideas at the earliest stages of film production. This led to the production of movies with greater artistic merit as well as marketability. It has also enabled film planners to pursue the production of movies of diverse genres, while at the same time turning film marketing and promotion into a specialized business area.

As a result, the producers and film production companies currently enjoying the greatest success are those with a history of less than 10 years, founded after production capital became more readily available in the 1990s. These include UNO Film, Myung Film, Cine 2000, Shin Cine, Age of Planning, and East Film. Many directors have also established their own independent film production companies, including Kang Je-gyu, Park Chul-soo and Bae Chang-ho. Meanwhile, film promotion and marketing emerged as a specialized business, which led to the creation of dozens of film promotion companies. Miro Vision, which engages exclusively in the export of Korean movies, is among those founded since the mid-l990s.

Such circumstances contributed to an environment in which it was relatively easy for someone with exceptional concepts, skills, and marketing potential to attract investors, particularly for directors who happen to be newcomers. Investors tended to prefer first-time directors over more experienced directors as they were more receptive to the advice of professional planners and zealous in their pursuit of breaking new ground.

Such changes in the investment environment ultimately brought about the downfall of traditional producers operating in Ch'ungmuro who, at the same time, are blamed for having mass-produced superficial movies solely for commercial gain. And while it is true that the non-transparency of Ch'ungmuro capital, irrational management, and changes in the investment environment led to an excessive preoccupation with box-office figures, it cannot be denied that this helped to attract new talent who injected dynamism into the industry and created high quality movies, which induced moviegoers to see local films once more.

Another major achievement was the establishment of a nationwide distribution network for Korean movies, which in the past were "squeezed in" with foreign films. The development of an independent distribution network for local movies was the natural result of the rationalization of the domestic film industry, from production to distribution and to public screening. Meanwhile, the screen quota system, which requires local theaters to show domestic movies at least 146 days each year, also helped Korean films-far outnumbered by foreign movies-to build their own distribution network. Of note, the expanded distribution network enabled local movies to become blockbuster hits, previously possible only for foreign movies. The Soul Guardians, Swiri, Yonggary, Ghost in Love, and Lies are among the recent domestic films which enjoyed blockbuster success The Soul Guardians and Swiri, in particular, are regarded as model films that introduced the concept of blockbuster hits to the history of Korean movies.

Thriving Film Culture and Freedom of Expression

One of the noteworthy developments of the 1990s was the creation of a rich film culture, which had been stifled by a narrow focus on features geared for theaters. In particular, the proliferation of independent film festivals, short film festivals, and the many programs on short films aired by nationwide EBS TV and cable networks fueled a production frenzy of short films by young people. Toward the end of the 1990s, the Korean Motion Picture Promotion Corporation also began to extend financial assistance for the production of short films. This departure from the past policy centered on features helped to lay a foundation for Korea's film culture embracing short films.

Korea's independent and short films produced during the 1990s were more highly acclaimed than its feature films at film festivals abroad, ushering in a bright future for the Korean film industry overall. Song Il-gon's The Picnic, the recipient of the grand prize in the short film category at the 52nd Cannes International Film Festival in 1999, as well as Ginger, Refrigerator, and Making Sun-dried Red Peppers contributed much to elevating the Status of Korean short films.

The active production of short films reinforces the basic infrastructure of the overall film industry in that their producers often go on to produce features. The vitalization of independent and short films-whose merit involves offering a sharply critical perspective of society and the conventional practices of film production-was largely propelled by a reduction of censorship when the democratization of Korean society advanced in earnest during the I990s, which enabled greater freedom of expression. During the days of Korea's struggle for democracy against authoritarian rule, independent and short films were mostly produced to promote the democracy movement, and were thus subject to harsh censorship and repression. Since the early I990s, however, the makers of independent and short films have begun to explore diverse themes and subjects while utilizing their films for artistic fulfillment, rather than using them as a means for promoting democracy.

The current rating system, which provides for greater freedom of expression as compared to the past, has contributed to the increased diversity of Korean movies by allowing previously prohibited forms of expression. Still, it does not guarantee complete freedom of expression as certain movies deemed inappropriate for public viewing may be denied a rating. Nevertheless, this relatively greater freedom of expression enabled Two Cops to expose police corruption, A Single Spark to denounce the military regime of the 1970s and highlight the domestic labor movement, and Extra to ridicule government power. In reality, however, the newfound freedom of expression has been mainly used to expand the bounds of on-screen sexuality. Movies such as Yellow Hair and lies, which generated widespread controversy for failing to receive a rating initially, were only allowed to be shown after explicit sex scenes were deleted. Still, it would have been impossible to even imagine the screening of such movies before the 1990s.

The Murmuring, a documentary trilogy on the "comfort women" coned as sex slaves by the Japanese army, is among the most significant achievements of the 1990s. The independently produced documentary provides in-depth coverage of issues related to history, the nation and the lives of these women. As such, the value of its contribution to further expanding the spectrum of Korean movies should not be overlooked.

The abundant diversity of films produced in the 1990s contributed to fertile debates on movies, in addition to attracting global interest. In line with this, daily newspapers have expanded their space allocated to film, and several TV programs related to Korean films, such as quizzes and parodies of famous lines and scenes from past movies, are gaining popularity. Moreover, a number of Internet and online film sites boasting high membership are in operation, while one cannot begin to discuss movies without having seen Swiri. One of the most notable accomplishments of the film industry in the 1990s was that it became part of the national culture such that Im Kwon-taek came to be called the "national director" and Ahn Sung-ki, the "national actor."

Korean Film Industry Should Not Become Intoxicated with Current Success

There are also potential downsides to the Korean film industry, despite the golden age it is currently enjoying. The frequent calls for retrenchment or abolishment of the screen quota system, in line with the new international order that calls for market liberalization, poses a constant threat to the production and distribution of Korean movies. But this can be overcome if the film industry consolidates its strength, as it has in the past, to rally the support of the Korean people and foster international understanding.

However, a more significant problem involves a lack of continuity in the film industry. First of all, the concentration of so many young people in the film business is cause for much concern, notwithstanding the positive factors of introducing vitality and innovation. Still, it now seems almost impossible for directors to repeat the success of their first or second movies. Perhaps the overriding preference for new and refreshing movies over more "profound" efforts has led to an apparent lack of freedom for directors to produce subsequent films after their first success. For example, Im Kwon-taek is currently the only producer over the age of 60 who remains active in film production. Park Cheol-su, who engaged in dynamic experiments until the early 1990s, and Jung Ji-young, who has failed to produce a significant movie since White Badge, are in effect the only directors of the previous generation who still remain active along with the next-generation of directors. Among the ensuing generation of directors, Jang Sun-woo and Park Kwang-su are still carrying on, but Park is constantly being challenged in regard to his ability to adapt to today's popular movies. The generation of directors who debuted at the end of the 1980s has scornfully called themselves "Olympic Directors," for their difficulty in producing one movie in four years. They almost never get a chance to produce a second movie, particularly if their first effort ended in commercial failure.

The generation break in the film industry itself, with virtually no company with accumulated experience either in production or planning, creates an obvious concern for continuity. Moreover, this phenomenon serves to raise a question of whether current filmmakers will really last more than a decade.

It is common to see a lack of accumulated experience and generational breach during periods of radical innovation or revolution. When a society goes through such radical changes at intervals of 10 to 20 years, however, any success is likely to be regarded as unstable or short-lived. Accordingly, the vitality of Korean movies, seen mainly by the younger generation, could end up as a fleeting phenomenon, unless the industry continues to mature together with its producers and core moviegoers. The current golden age of Korean movies will be significant only if the twenty-something viewers of the movies created by thirty-something directors continue to watch the movies produced by these same directors for the next 10 to 20 years.

Another problem is the narrow scope of movie content. Although it is true that Korean movies have expanded their content as compared to the pre1990s, they are still excessively focused on unconventional love stories involving young people. The current atmosphere that neglects dramas through a disproportionate preoccupation with young love, be it in action films, melodramas, or movies such as Lies, serves to restrict the realm of Korean movies. If a wider scope encompassing the diverse lives of people of varying ages and professions could be reflected in Korean movies, this would naturally create a film culture that embraces children's movies and family films as well as those for adult viewing only. If the Korean film industry, in its golden age, fails to release movies appropriate for family viewing during summer vacation or at other times, the current boom could end up as a short-lived festival only for the young. To further penetrate the global market, it is necessary to produce movies with universal appeal from the initial planning stage. This should be achieved by portraying issues through global sensibilities, instead of adhering to a narcissistic view focused on national originality, based on a belief that "what is more Korean is more global."